A Home in Space-international Space Station
To live in space for long periods, it is necessary to have an environment that compensates for the lack of oxygen. Space stations have systems that provide oxygen to the crew and filter out the exhaled carbon dioxide. Life in a space station allows astronomers to study the effect of a long-term stay in space. Space stations also have laboratories for conducting scientific experiments.
Space Giant
The International Space Station (ISS) is the result of
the integration of NASA's Freedom and the Russian
Space Agency's Mir 2 projects. Construction began in 1998,
and the large illustration shows what the ISS will look like when it is finished in 2010. Various countries have contributed modules for the station. Its habitable surface area is equal to that of two Boeing 747s.
The International Space Station (ISS) is a habitable artificial satellite in low Earth orbit. It follows the Salyut, Almaz, Skylab and Mir stations as the ninth space station to be inhabited. The ISS is a modular structure whose first component was launched in 1998. Like many artificial satellites, the station can be seen from Earth with the naked eye. The ISS consists of pressurised modules, external trusses, solar arrays and other components. ISS components have been launched by American Space Shuttles as well as Russian Proton and Soyuz rockets. Budget constraints led to the merger of three space station projects with the Japanese Kibō module and Canadian robotics. In 1993 the Soviet/Russian Mir-2, the American Freedom, and the European Columbus merged into a single multinational programme. The Russian Federal Space Agency plans to separate some of its modules from the Russian segment to form the OPSEK facility before the remainder of the station is de orbited.
The ISS serves as a microgravity and space environment research laboratory in which crew members conduct experiments in biology, human biology, physics,astronomy, meteorology and other fields. The station is suited for the testing of spacecraft systems and equipment required for missions to the Moon and Mars.
The station has been continuously occupied for 11 years and 189 days having exceeded the previous record of almost 10 years (or 3,644 days) held by Mir, in 2010. The station is serviced by Soyuz spacecraft, Progress spacecraft, theAutomated Transfer Vehicle, the H-II Transfer Vehicle, and formerly theSpace Shuttle. It has been visited by astronauts and cosmonauts from 15 different nations.
The ISS programme is a joint project between five participating space agencies, the American NASA, the Russian RKA, the Japanese JAXA, the EuropeanESA, and the Canadian CSA.The ownership and use of the space station is established by intergovernmental treaties and agreements. The station is divided into two sections, the Russian orbital segment (ROS) and theUnited States orbital segment (USOS), which is shared by many nations. The ISS is maintained at an orbital altitude of between 330 km (205 mi) and 410 km (255 mi). It completes 15.7 orbits per day. The ISS is funded until 2020, and may operate until 2028.
Track International Space Station here
Purpose
According to the original Memorandum of Understanding between NASA and RSA, the International Space Station was intended to be a laboratory, observatory and factory in space. It was also planned to provide transportation, maintenance, and act as a staging base for possible future missions to the Moon, Mars and asteroids. In the 2010 United States National Space Policy, the ISS was given additional roles of serving commercial, diplomatic, and educational purposes.
Space Giant
The International Space Station (ISS) is the result of
the integration of NASA's Freedom and the Russian
Space Agency's Mir 2 projects. Construction began in 1998,
and the large illustration shows what the ISS will look like when it is finished in 2010. Various countries have contributed modules for the station. Its habitable surface area is equal to that of two Boeing 747s.
The International Space Station (ISS) is a habitable artificial satellite in low Earth orbit. It follows the Salyut, Almaz, Skylab and Mir stations as the ninth space station to be inhabited. The ISS is a modular structure whose first component was launched in 1998. Like many artificial satellites, the station can be seen from Earth with the naked eye. The ISS consists of pressurised modules, external trusses, solar arrays and other components. ISS components have been launched by American Space Shuttles as well as Russian Proton and Soyuz rockets. Budget constraints led to the merger of three space station projects with the Japanese Kibō module and Canadian robotics. In 1993 the Soviet/Russian Mir-2, the American Freedom, and the European Columbus merged into a single multinational programme. The Russian Federal Space Agency plans to separate some of its modules from the Russian segment to form the OPSEK facility before the remainder of the station is de orbited.
The ISS serves as a microgravity and space environment research laboratory in which crew members conduct experiments in biology, human biology, physics,astronomy, meteorology and other fields. The station is suited for the testing of spacecraft systems and equipment required for missions to the Moon and Mars.
The station has been continuously occupied for 11 years and 189 days having exceeded the previous record of almost 10 years (or 3,644 days) held by Mir, in 2010. The station is serviced by Soyuz spacecraft, Progress spacecraft, theAutomated Transfer Vehicle, the H-II Transfer Vehicle, and formerly theSpace Shuttle. It has been visited by astronauts and cosmonauts from 15 different nations.
The ISS programme is a joint project between five participating space agencies, the American NASA, the Russian RKA, the Japanese JAXA, the EuropeanESA, and the Canadian CSA.The ownership and use of the space station is established by intergovernmental treaties and agreements. The station is divided into two sections, the Russian orbital segment (ROS) and theUnited States orbital segment (USOS), which is shared by many nations. The ISS is maintained at an orbital altitude of between 330 km (205 mi) and 410 km (255 mi). It completes 15.7 orbits per day. The ISS is funded until 2020, and may operate until 2028.
Track International Space Station here
Purpose
According to the original Memorandum of Understanding between NASA and RSA, the International Space Station was intended to be a laboratory, observatory and factory in space. It was also planned to provide transportation, maintenance, and act as a staging base for possible future missions to the Moon, Mars and asteroids. In the 2010 United States National Space Policy, the ISS was given additional roles of serving commercial, diplomatic, and educational purposes.
GEt live from iss
Spying on the Universe
Space telescopes such as the Hubble are artificial satellites put into orbit for observing
different regions of the universe. Unlike telescopes on Earth, space telescopes are above the Earth's atmosphere. Therefore, they avoid the effects of atmospheric turbulence, which degrades the quality of telescopic images. Moreover, the atmosphere prevents the observation of the stars and other objects in certain wavelengths
(especially the infrared), which substantially
decreases what might be seen in the heavens. Space telescopes do not have to
contend with light pollution, which is a problem for observatories near urban areas.
The Hubble Space Telescope
The Hubble was put into orbit on April 25, 1990, by NASA and ESA. It is an artificial satellite whose instruments are directed toward outer space. The telescope can be remotely controlled by astronomers at different locations. The telescope's computers point the telescope in the desired direction, and sensitive light detectors and cameras make the desired observations, in many cases producing impressive vistas of the cosmos. In 1993, because of a fault in the primary mirror, acorrective lens called COSTAR had to be installed to correct the focus of the telescope.
different regions of the universe. Unlike telescopes on Earth, space telescopes are above the Earth's atmosphere. Therefore, they avoid the effects of atmospheric turbulence, which degrades the quality of telescopic images. Moreover, the atmosphere prevents the observation of the stars and other objects in certain wavelengths
(especially the infrared), which substantially
decreases what might be seen in the heavens. Space telescopes do not have to
contend with light pollution, which is a problem for observatories near urban areas.
The Hubble Space Telescope
The Hubble was put into orbit on April 25, 1990, by NASA and ESA. It is an artificial satellite whose instruments are directed toward outer space. The telescope can be remotely controlled by astronomers at different locations. The telescope's computers point the telescope in the desired direction, and sensitive light detectors and cameras make the desired observations, in many cases producing impressive vistas of the cosmos. In 1993, because of a fault in the primary mirror, acorrective lens called COSTAR had to be installed to correct the focus of the telescope.
Great achievements of Hubble...
Space Junk
Since the time that the first satellite (Sputnik) was launched in 1957, near space has become overcrowded with a large amount of debris. Satellite batteries that have exploded and parts of rockets and spacecraft still orbiting the Earth form a genuine cosmic garbage dump. These variously sized objects pose a danger to satellites and spacecraft because of the damage that would be caused by a collision—the particles move at speeds of 19,000 to 43,000 miles per hour (30,000 to 70,000 km/h).
Space Junk
Any object launched from Earth that is no longer useful but is still orbiting the Earth is considered space junk. Rockets used only once can remain in orbit,
as do pieces of spacecraft or apparatuses ejected intentionally so that they would not enter the wrong orbit. Space junk can even include lost objects. In 1965
astronaut Edward White lost a glove, which kept orbiting the Earth for a month at 17,400 miles per hour(28,000 km/h).
SIZE OF SPACE JUNK
More than 11,000 objects and millions of tiny particles have been cataloged.
LESS THAN 0.4 INCH (1 CM)- 30,000,000+
Very small particles cause superficial damage.
FROM 0.4 TO 4 INCHES (1-10 CM) - 100,000+
These particles can knock holes in satellites.
MORE THAN 4 INCHES (10 CM) - 11,000+
These objects can cause irreparable damage. These are the objects that are catalogedand tracked from Earth.
Visiting Other Worlds
Space exploration has allowed us access to worlds believed to have been inaccessible, and it has also helped the human race to become conscious of the
planet Earth and the need to care for it. The future of planetary exploration appears promising. The next few years will see ever more interesting discoveries. Right now there are spacecraft exploring or are on their way to explore other bodies of the solar system—Mars, Saturn, Jupiter, Venus, and even Pluto. The necessity of taking on large projects and traveling to sites ever farther away has always been with us. Therefore, each one of our accomplishments constitutes another step forward in our knowledge of space for the sake of all humanity.
Human Tracks
Ancient astronomers saw faint points of light that seemed to moveamong the stars. These objects were called planets, and each one ofthem was given the name of a god. In the 16th and 17th centuries,scientists came to recognize that the planets were physical bodies thatrevolved around the Sun. However, it was only recently, in the late 20thcentury, that technological advances permitted the direct study and themagnificent close-up photographs of the planets in the solar system.
The Planets
From the sightings by Galileoto the construction of spacestations capable of sheltering humans,interest in revealing the mysteries of the planetshas never ceased. Detailed studies of the rings ofSaturn, the patches of ice at the poles of Mars,the exploration of various comets and asteroids,and the flybys of the great moons of the majorplanets are among the most striking results ofspace exploration to date.
The Moon
The obsession to carry outsuccessful missions to the Moonbegan with the programs of the SovietUnion at the end of the 1950s in thecontext of the space race with theUnited States. It was President John F.Kennedy who in 1963 announced thatthe United States intended to put aman on the Moon before the end of thedecade. In 1969, Apollo 11 landed onthe Moon, beginning a series ofsuccessful manned missions.
The Sun
The Skylab space station obtained more than 150,000 images of the Sun between 1974 and 1979. The space probe Ulysses has studied the Sun's
poles and the effects of its magnetic field. Its mission continues. The astronomical observatory SOHO is dedicated to studying the internal structure of the Sun and the origin of solar-wind particles. SOHO discovered 100 comets, including a number thatcrashed into the Sun.
planet Earth and the need to care for it. The future of planetary exploration appears promising. The next few years will see ever more interesting discoveries. Right now there are spacecraft exploring or are on their way to explore other bodies of the solar system—Mars, Saturn, Jupiter, Venus, and even Pluto. The necessity of taking on large projects and traveling to sites ever farther away has always been with us. Therefore, each one of our accomplishments constitutes another step forward in our knowledge of space for the sake of all humanity.
Human Tracks
Ancient astronomers saw faint points of light that seemed to moveamong the stars. These objects were called planets, and each one ofthem was given the name of a god. In the 16th and 17th centuries,scientists came to recognize that the planets were physical bodies thatrevolved around the Sun. However, it was only recently, in the late 20thcentury, that technological advances permitted the direct study and themagnificent close-up photographs of the planets in the solar system.
The Planets
From the sightings by Galileoto the construction of spacestations capable of sheltering humans,interest in revealing the mysteries of the planetshas never ceased. Detailed studies of the rings ofSaturn, the patches of ice at the poles of Mars,the exploration of various comets and asteroids,and the flybys of the great moons of the majorplanets are among the most striking results ofspace exploration to date.
The Moon
The obsession to carry outsuccessful missions to the Moonbegan with the programs of the SovietUnion at the end of the 1950s in thecontext of the space race with theUnited States. It was President John F.Kennedy who in 1963 announced thatthe United States intended to put aman on the Moon before the end of thedecade. In 1969, Apollo 11 landed onthe Moon, beginning a series ofsuccessful manned missions.
The Sun
The Skylab space station obtained more than 150,000 images of the Sun between 1974 and 1979. The space probe Ulysses has studied the Sun's
poles and the effects of its magnetic field. Its mission continues. The astronomical observatory SOHO is dedicated to studying the internal structure of the Sun and the origin of solar-wind particles. SOHO discovered 100 comets, including a number thatcrashed into the Sun.
Mars in the Sights
There was a time when it was thought that Mars, our closest neighbor, harbored life. Perhaps for this reason it is the planet that has been most explored by various spacecraft from the decade of the 1960s onward, and it is therefore the one we know the best, apart from the Earth. Mariner 9 in 1971 and Vikings 1 and 2 in 1976 revealed the existence of valleys and immense volcanic mountains. In 2001 the United States launched the Mars Odyssey
mission, which indicated that liquid water exists at great depths.
Mars Odyssey Mission
Named after 2001: A Space Odyssey, the probe was launched by NASA from Cape Canaveral on April 7, 2001. It entered into Martian orbit in October of the same year. The Mars Odyssey was designed for a number of
functions, such as taking images in the visible and infrared spectrum, studying the chemical composition of the planet's surface, and investigating the existence of possible sources of heat. One of its purposes was also to find traces of hydrogen and thus water on Mars. Finally, the Mars Odyssey was used in support tasks for other Mars missions, acting as a radio-signal repeaterbetween Earth and probes on the Martian surface.More....
mission, which indicated that liquid water exists at great depths.
Mars Odyssey Mission
Named after 2001: A Space Odyssey, the probe was launched by NASA from Cape Canaveral on April 7, 2001. It entered into Martian orbit in October of the same year. The Mars Odyssey was designed for a number of
functions, such as taking images in the visible and infrared spectrum, studying the chemical composition of the planet's surface, and investigating the existence of possible sources of heat. One of its purposes was also to find traces of hydrogen and thus water on Mars. Finally, the Mars Odyssey was used in support tasks for other Mars missions, acting as a radio-signal repeaterbetween Earth and probes on the Martian surface.More....
Jupiter in Focus
The fifth planet of the solar system was visited by Pioneer 1 and 2, Voyager 1 and 2, and Cassini. However, the most significant visitor was Galileo, launched by NASA on Oct. 18, 1989. Galileo consisted of an orbiter and an atmospheric probe. After a long voyage, the atmospheric probe penetrated some 125 miles (200 km) into the atmosphere of Jupiter on Dec. 7, 1995, transmitting data about the atmosphere's chemical composition and Jupiter's meteorological activity. The orbiter continued sending information until it crashed into the gaseous giant on Sept. 21, 2003.
Trajectory
Galileo was designed to study the atmosphere of Jupiter, its satellites, and the magnetosphere of the planet. To get there, it did not use a direct path but had to perform an assisted trajectory, passing by Venus on Feb. 10, 1990. Then it flew by the Earth twice and arrived at Jupiter on Dec. 7, 1995. The probe succeeded in sending information of unprecedented quality with a low-gain antenna about the satellites of Jupiter, its moon Europa, and various examples of volcanic activity in its moon Io. It also contributed to the discovery of 21 new satellites around Jupiter. The mission was deactivated in 2003, and the vehicle was sent to crash into the planet. The purpose of this termination was to avoid future collision with its moon Europa that might have contaminated its ice; scientists believe that extraterrestrialmicroscopic life may have evolved on Europa.
Galileo
In spite of its mission being plagued by technical problems, Galileo provided astronomers with a huge amount of information during its 35 orbits
around Jupiter. The useful life of the probe, which cost $1.5 billion, extended five years longer than planned. The probe contributed to the discovery of 21 new
satellites around Jupiter. Galileo sent large amounts of data and 14,000 images to Earth. It found traces of salt water on the surface of the moon Europa and
evidence that it probably also exists on the moons Ganymede and Callisto. Likewise, it provided information about volcanic activity on the moon Io. It
also showed an almost invisible ring around Jupiter consisting of meteorite dust. From the moment it was launched until its disintegration, the spacecraft
traveled almost 2.9 billion miles (4.6 billion km) with barely 2,000 pounds (925 kg) of combustible fuel.More than 800 scientists worked on the project.
Atmospheric Probe
Once Galileo arrived at the planet Jupiter, it released a small probe that fell through the atmosphere. This descent probe carried scientific instruments and the subsystems required to keep them active and transmit the data to the orbiter for storage for later transmittal to Earth. During its 57 minutes of active life in the Jovian atmosphere, the descent provided a number of discoveries, including a surprising lack of water in the upper layers of the Jovian clouds.
Trajectory
Galileo was designed to study the atmosphere of Jupiter, its satellites, and the magnetosphere of the planet. To get there, it did not use a direct path but had to perform an assisted trajectory, passing by Venus on Feb. 10, 1990. Then it flew by the Earth twice and arrived at Jupiter on Dec. 7, 1995. The probe succeeded in sending information of unprecedented quality with a low-gain antenna about the satellites of Jupiter, its moon Europa, and various examples of volcanic activity in its moon Io. It also contributed to the discovery of 21 new satellites around Jupiter. The mission was deactivated in 2003, and the vehicle was sent to crash into the planet. The purpose of this termination was to avoid future collision with its moon Europa that might have contaminated its ice; scientists believe that extraterrestrialmicroscopic life may have evolved on Europa.
Galileo
In spite of its mission being plagued by technical problems, Galileo provided astronomers with a huge amount of information during its 35 orbits
around Jupiter. The useful life of the probe, which cost $1.5 billion, extended five years longer than planned. The probe contributed to the discovery of 21 new
satellites around Jupiter. Galileo sent large amounts of data and 14,000 images to Earth. It found traces of salt water on the surface of the moon Europa and
evidence that it probably also exists on the moons Ganymede and Callisto. Likewise, it provided information about volcanic activity on the moon Io. It
also showed an almost invisible ring around Jupiter consisting of meteorite dust. From the moment it was launched until its disintegration, the spacecraft
traveled almost 2.9 billion miles (4.6 billion km) with barely 2,000 pounds (925 kg) of combustible fuel.More than 800 scientists worked on the project.
Atmospheric Probe
Once Galileo arrived at the planet Jupiter, it released a small probe that fell through the atmosphere. This descent probe carried scientific instruments and the subsystems required to keep them active and transmit the data to the orbiter for storage for later transmittal to Earth. During its 57 minutes of active life in the Jovian atmosphere, the descent provided a number of discoveries, including a surprising lack of water in the upper layers of the Jovian clouds.
A View of Saturn
The longed-for return to Saturn was the result of a
scientific alliance between NASA and the European
Space Agency (ESA). On Oct. 15, 1997, after a number
of years of development, the fruit of this collaboration lifted
off toward this enormous gas giant. The mission of Cassini, the mother ship, was the exploration of Saturn. It carried a smaller probe, Huygens, that was to land on Saturn's largest moon, Titan, and transmit images and sounds from the surface. The Huygens probe accomplished this prodigious feat, demonstrating once again the capacity of humans to respond to the challenge of frontiers.
Trajectory
The trajectory of Cassini-Huygens was long and
complicated, because it included strategic flybys of Venus
(1998 and 1999), Earth (1999), and Jupiter (2000). Each one of these encounters was used to increase the craft's velocity and to send the spacecraft in the appropriate direction (a maneuver known as a gravity assist). Finally, and after almost seven years, traveling some 2.2 billion miles (3.5 billion km), the spacecraft arrived at its destination. It brought an end to the
long wait since the last visit of a probe to Saturn—the 1981flyby by Voyager 2.
Cassini-Huygens
The information sent by Huygens and relayed by Cassini took 67 minutes to travel from Saturn to the Earth. Although it could only see a small section of
Titan, the apparatus was able to answer some key questions. For example, the probe did not find liquid, but it did find signs that the surface had a crust that was hard on top and soft underneath, which was flooded from time to time. Investigators said that Titan could have very infrequent precipitation, but when it occurred it could be abundant and cause flooding. Moreover, it appears that some of the conditions for lifeto arise exist on Titan, although it is too cold for life to have started.
Descent onto Titan
On Jan. 14, 2005, the six instruments of Huygens worked without pause during the two-and-a-half-hour descent. They confirmed, for example, that the gaseous blanket that surrounds Titan consists primarily of nitrogen and that its yellowish color is caused by the presence of complex hydrocarbons, which are formed when sunlight breaks down atmospheric methane. The thermometer measured –400° F (–203° C) at an altitude of 31 miles (50 km), which was the lowest temperaturerecorded during the entire mission.
scientific alliance between NASA and the European
Space Agency (ESA). On Oct. 15, 1997, after a number
of years of development, the fruit of this collaboration lifted
off toward this enormous gas giant. The mission of Cassini, the mother ship, was the exploration of Saturn. It carried a smaller probe, Huygens, that was to land on Saturn's largest moon, Titan, and transmit images and sounds from the surface. The Huygens probe accomplished this prodigious feat, demonstrating once again the capacity of humans to respond to the challenge of frontiers.
Trajectory
The trajectory of Cassini-Huygens was long and
complicated, because it included strategic flybys of Venus
(1998 and 1999), Earth (1999), and Jupiter (2000). Each one of these encounters was used to increase the craft's velocity and to send the spacecraft in the appropriate direction (a maneuver known as a gravity assist). Finally, and after almost seven years, traveling some 2.2 billion miles (3.5 billion km), the spacecraft arrived at its destination. It brought an end to the
long wait since the last visit of a probe to Saturn—the 1981flyby by Voyager 2.
Cassini-Huygens
The information sent by Huygens and relayed by Cassini took 67 minutes to travel from Saturn to the Earth. Although it could only see a small section of
Titan, the apparatus was able to answer some key questions. For example, the probe did not find liquid, but it did find signs that the surface had a crust that was hard on top and soft underneath, which was flooded from time to time. Investigators said that Titan could have very infrequent precipitation, but when it occurred it could be abundant and cause flooding. Moreover, it appears that some of the conditions for lifeto arise exist on Titan, although it is too cold for life to have started.
Descent onto Titan
On Jan. 14, 2005, the six instruments of Huygens worked without pause during the two-and-a-half-hour descent. They confirmed, for example, that the gaseous blanket that surrounds Titan consists primarily of nitrogen and that its yellowish color is caused by the presence of complex hydrocarbons, which are formed when sunlight breaks down atmospheric methane. The thermometer measured –400° F (–203° C) at an altitude of 31 miles (50 km), which was the lowest temperaturerecorded during the entire mission.
Toward Venus and Pluto
The New Horizons mission, launched by NASA in January 2006, is a voyage that will carry the spacecraft to the limits of the solar system and beyond. The most important goal of the voyage is to visit Pluto, a dwarf planet (a designation made in 2006 by the International Astronomical Union). The ship flew past Jupiter to gain enough speed to get to Pluto in the year 2015. It will have six months to make observations of Pluto, after which it will continue its voyage toward the region of the solar system known as the Kuiper belt.
New Horizons Mission
An unmanned space mission by NASA whose destination is to
explore Pluto and the Kuiper belt. The probe was launched from Cape Canaveral on Jan. 19, 2006. It flew past Jupiter in February 2007 to take advantage of the planet's gravity and increase its speed. It will arrive at Pluto on July 14, 2015. Finally, the probe will fly by one or more objects in the Kuiper belt. The principal objectives of the mission are to study the form and structure of Pluto and its satellite Charon, analyze the variability of the temperature on Pluto's surface, look for additional satellites around Pluto, and obtain high-resolution images. The power source for thespacecraft is a radioisotope thermoelectric generator.
The Spacecraft
The central structure of New Horizons is an aluminum cylinder that weighs 1,025 pounds (465 kg), of which 66 pounds (30 kg) are accounted for by scientific instruments. All its systems and devices have backups. The spacecraft carries a sophisticated guidance-and-control system for orientation. It has cameras to follow the stars and help find the right direction. These cameras have a star map with 3,000 stars stored in their memory. Ten times eac second, one of the
cameras takes a wide-angle image of space and compares it withthe stored map.
The spacecraft New Horizons will arrive at Pluto on July 14, 2015.
The Venus Express Mission
Venus is a little smaller than the Earth and has a dense atmosphere. Because it is located at slightly more than 67 million miles (108 million km) from the Sun, it receives almost twice the solar energy as the surface of the Earth. The Venus Express is the first mission of the European Space Agency to Venus. The scientific aims include studying in detail the atmosphere, the plasma medium, the surface of the planet, and surface-atmosphere interactions. It was launched from the Baikonur cosmodrome on Nov. 9, 2005. The mission will last two Venus days, some 500 terrestrial days. Thespacecraft entered into orbit on April 11, 2006.
New Horizons Mission
An unmanned space mission by NASA whose destination is to
explore Pluto and the Kuiper belt. The probe was launched from Cape Canaveral on Jan. 19, 2006. It flew past Jupiter in February 2007 to take advantage of the planet's gravity and increase its speed. It will arrive at Pluto on July 14, 2015. Finally, the probe will fly by one or more objects in the Kuiper belt. The principal objectives of the mission are to study the form and structure of Pluto and its satellite Charon, analyze the variability of the temperature on Pluto's surface, look for additional satellites around Pluto, and obtain high-resolution images. The power source for thespacecraft is a radioisotope thermoelectric generator.
The Spacecraft
The central structure of New Horizons is an aluminum cylinder that weighs 1,025 pounds (465 kg), of which 66 pounds (30 kg) are accounted for by scientific instruments. All its systems and devices have backups. The spacecraft carries a sophisticated guidance-and-control system for orientation. It has cameras to follow the stars and help find the right direction. These cameras have a star map with 3,000 stars stored in their memory. Ten times eac second, one of the
cameras takes a wide-angle image of space and compares it withthe stored map.
The spacecraft New Horizons will arrive at Pluto on July 14, 2015.
The Venus Express Mission
Venus is a little smaller than the Earth and has a dense atmosphere. Because it is located at slightly more than 67 million miles (108 million km) from the Sun, it receives almost twice the solar energy as the surface of the Earth. The Venus Express is the first mission of the European Space Agency to Venus. The scientific aims include studying in detail the atmosphere, the plasma medium, the surface of the planet, and surface-atmosphere interactions. It was launched from the Baikonur cosmodrome on Nov. 9, 2005. The mission will last two Venus days, some 500 terrestrial days. Thespacecraft entered into orbit on April 11, 2006.
Closer to the Sun
The space probe Ulysses was launched from the space shuttle on Oct. 6, 1990. It completed its first orbit around the Sun in 1997 and since then has carried out one of the most in-depth studies ever about our star. The probe's orbits allow it to study the heliosphere at all latitudes, from the equator to the poles, in both the northern and southern hemispheres of the Sun. The joint NASA and ESA mission is the first to orbit around the poles of the Sun. It orbits the Sun at 10 miles per second (15.4 km/s).
First Orbit
ORDER OF THE HELIOSPHERE
Ulysses completed its first solar orbit in December 1997 after having passed over the north pole. The heliosphere's structure was seen
to be bimodal—that is, the solar winds were faster at greater inclinations of the orbit (beginning at 36°). During the first orbit,
there was relativelylittle solar activity.
Second Orbit
HELIOSPHERE CHAOS
The information obtained by the Ulysses probe in the year 2000 showed a structural change in the solar wind during the period of maximum solar
activity. Ulysses did not detect patterns in which wind speed corresponded with inclination, and in general the solar wind was slower and more variable.
Third Orbit
CHANGES IN THE MAGNETIC FIELD
After having survived the difficult pounding of the solar activity during its second orbit, the Ulysses probe began a third orbit around the Sun's poles in February 2007. Solar activity was expected to be at a minimum, as it was in 1994, but thepoles of the magnetic field are reversed.
Solar Wind and the Earth
Thanks to its intense nuclear activity the Sun expels a million tons of particles per second into space. This particle flow forms a low-density plasma that extends the Sun's magnetic field and interacts with the Earth's magnetosphere. The area where the solar wind no longer hasan effect is called the heliopause.
First Orbit
ORDER OF THE HELIOSPHERE
Ulysses completed its first solar orbit in December 1997 after having passed over the north pole. The heliosphere's structure was seen
to be bimodal—that is, the solar winds were faster at greater inclinations of the orbit (beginning at 36°). During the first orbit,
there was relativelylittle solar activity.
Second Orbit
HELIOSPHERE CHAOS
The information obtained by the Ulysses probe in the year 2000 showed a structural change in the solar wind during the period of maximum solar
activity. Ulysses did not detect patterns in which wind speed corresponded with inclination, and in general the solar wind was slower and more variable.
Third Orbit
CHANGES IN THE MAGNETIC FIELD
After having survived the difficult pounding of the solar activity during its second orbit, the Ulysses probe began a third orbit around the Sun's poles in February 2007. Solar activity was expected to be at a minimum, as it was in 1994, but thepoles of the magnetic field are reversed.
Solar Wind and the Earth
Thanks to its intense nuclear activity the Sun expels a million tons of particles per second into space. This particle flow forms a low-density plasma that extends the Sun's magnetic field and interacts with the Earth's magnetosphere. The area where the solar wind no longer hasan effect is called the heliopause.
The Road Beyond
The space probes Voyager 1 and 2 were launched by NASA to study the outer solar system. Voyager 1 was launched on Sept. 5, 1977, and flew by Jupiter in 1979 and Saturn in 1980. Voyager 2 lifted off on Aug. 20, 1977, then flew by Jupiter and Saturn to reach Uranus in 1986 and Neptune in 1989. Voyager 2 is the only probe that has visited both of these planets. Both probes have now become the furthest distant artificial instruments ever sent into space by humans.
Looking for the Heliopause
With Voyagers 1 and 2 leaving the Solar System, the project was renamed the Interstellar Voyager Mission. Both probes continue to study the magnetic fields they detect, looking for the heliopause—that is, the limit between the area of
the Sun's influence and interstellar space. Once that frontier has been passed, the Voyagers will be able to measure waves that escape the solar magnetic field, beginning with the so-called “bow shock,” a zone where the solar wind diminishes abruptly because of the disappearance of the solar magnetic field. It is hoped that the Voyagers willcontinue to be active for at least 30 years.
Golden Record
The Voyagers carried the recorded greetings of humanity in a golden, 12-inch record. Each spacecraft had one, with information about life on Earth, photographs, music of Mozart, Bach, and Beethoven, greetings in more than 50 languages, and the brain waves of a woman (Ann Druyan, the wife of the now-deceased astronomer Carl Sagan, who supervised this collection). If the message finds anyone who can respond, it will be, in the words of Sagan, “humanity's most important discovery.”
Looking for the Heliopause
With Voyagers 1 and 2 leaving the Solar System, the project was renamed the Interstellar Voyager Mission. Both probes continue to study the magnetic fields they detect, looking for the heliopause—that is, the limit between the area of
the Sun's influence and interstellar space. Once that frontier has been passed, the Voyagers will be able to measure waves that escape the solar magnetic field, beginning with the so-called “bow shock,” a zone where the solar wind diminishes abruptly because of the disappearance of the solar magnetic field. It is hoped that the Voyagers willcontinue to be active for at least 30 years.
Golden Record
The Voyagers carried the recorded greetings of humanity in a golden, 12-inch record. Each spacecraft had one, with information about life on Earth, photographs, music of Mozart, Bach, and Beethoven, greetings in more than 50 languages, and the brain waves of a woman (Ann Druyan, the wife of the now-deceased astronomer Carl Sagan, who supervised this collection). If the message finds anyone who can respond, it will be, in the words of Sagan, “humanity's most important discovery.”